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Archaeological mollusk shells can be recovered in a variety of forms. Shell morphology of aquatic mollusks can be altered by natural agents during the organism’s lifetime, after its death, and after its deposition. They can be alternatively or coevally modified by human activity. This paper criticizes the lack of detailed analyses in the interpretation of modified archaeological shells, which often leads to the representation of false or manipulated evidence for anthropogenic activity. Modes of shell modification are exemplified by using modern and archaeological finds from the Eastern Mediterranean. The need for conducting experimental and taphonomic research in order to accurately unfold the processes that were in play in shell modification is emphasized.

Survey of the development of air transport in the Dutch East Indies,and its place in colonial society.

African history of the Sahel and Sudan zone appears to have been marked by political instability. Resistance to Fulbe empires was more common than the main literature suggests. The Fulbe are pastoralists and the empires of nomadic pastoralists are inherently unstable. The Fulbe emirates are often described as having been born out of the revolts of religiously inspired nomadic pastoralists against oppressive sedentary regimes. However, the resistance movements against Fulbe hegemony itself can partly be explained as revolts of the originally nomadic population who felt their cause was not well defended by the elite of these emirates. Opposition to the ideology of Islam inspired revolts of non-Islamic groups. These resistance movements were also fed by the oppressive nature of the new emirates, whose most prominent characteristic was slavery. Resistance is expressed in contemporary ritual and oral traditions, challenging the official historiography of these emirates. Three examples are taken in this chapter to illustrate resistance against Fulbe hegemony: the Timbo Emirate in the Fuuta Jallon, the Diina Emirate in central Mali and the Futanke Emirate which followed Diina in the second half of the 19th century. Notes, ref., sum. [Book abstract]

This volume discusses the comparative legacy of colonial rule in the Netherlands Indies and Belgian Congo during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Whereas the Indonesian economy progressed rapidly during the last three decades of the twentieth century and became a self-reliant and assertive world power, the Congo regressed into a state of political chaos and endemic violence. To which extent do the different legacies of Dutch and Belgian rule explain these different development outcomes, if they do at all? By discussing the comparative features and development of Dutch and Belgian rule, the book aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of the role of colonial institutional legacies in long run patterns of economic divergence in the modern era and to add a comparative case-study to the strand of literature analyzing the marked differences in economic and political development in Asia and Africa during the postcolonial era.