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  • Authors: John, Richard R.;

    This essay challenges the theory-driven approach to early American statecraft that was popularized by political scientist Stephen Skowronek by surveying recent historical writing on the early American state. Much of this writing falls into one of three overlapping genres that sets out to answer a different question. Was the early republic a prelude to things to come; a project with a distinctive character; or a promise that a later generation might wish to redeem? The first genre analyzes the early American state as a prelude to later events such as the New Deal and the civil rights movement of the 1960s. The second genre treats governmental institutions in the early republic as a project that had a coherence and integrity that has been overlooked, disparaged, or forgotten. The third genre follows the lead of colonist John Murrin and tries to recover the promise of the early American state by emphasizing the founders' ideals, the magnitude of the challenge they confronted, and the distinctiveness of the governmental institutions that they built. While this historical writing is diverse, it shares three premises that Murrin rejected. First, that the Jeffersonians were not the only or even necessarily the primary actors even on the national stage; second, that governmental institutions, as distinct from the interests of specific social groups, can be agents of change; and, third, that the state in the early republic diverged in substantive ways from the state in the colonial past.

    Journal of the Early...arrow_drop_down
    Journal of the Early Republic
    Article . 2018 . Peer-reviewed
    Data sources: Crossref
    https://doi.org/10.7916/d8-xw2...
    Other literature type . 2018
    Data sources: Datacite
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      Journal of the Early Republic
      Article . 2018 . Peer-reviewed
      Data sources: Crossref
      https://doi.org/10.7916/d8-xw2...
      Other literature type . 2018
      Data sources: Datacite
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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Richard D. Shiels; Roger D. Launius; John E. Hallwas;
    image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/ Journal of the Early...arrow_drop_down
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    Journal of the Early Republic
    Article . 1998 . Peer-reviewed
    Data sources: Crossref
    Western Historical Quarterly
    Article . 1997 . Peer-reviewed
    Data sources: Crossref
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      Journal of the Early Republic
      Article . 1998 . Peer-reviewed
      Data sources: Crossref
      Western Historical Quarterly
      Article . 1997 . Peer-reviewed
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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Willard Carl Klunder; Adrian George Traas;
    image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/ Journal of the Early...arrow_drop_down
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    Journal of the Early Republic
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    Journal of the Early Republic
    Article . 1994 . Peer-reviewed
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      Journal of the Early Republic
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      Journal of the Early Republic
      Article . 1994 . Peer-reviewed
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  • Authors: George Price; Theda Perdue;
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    Authors: Mikhail Suslov;
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    Journal of Church and State
    Article . 2020 . Peer-reviewed
    License: OUP Standard Publication Reuse
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      Article . 2020 . Peer-reviewed
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  • Authors: Jon Parmenter;

    Bayonets in the Wilderness: Anthony Wayne's Legion in the Old Northwest. By Alan D. Gaff. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004. Pp. 416. Cloth, $39.95.)Alan D. Gaff opens his account of General Anthony Wayne's campaign against the Native Americans of the Ohio Valley with an impressive narrative reconstruction of the November 1791 Battle of Kekionga, in which a confederated Indian force under the Miami leader Little Turtle annihilated American forces under General Arthur St. Clair. This defeat motivated the United States War Department to revise its approach to frontier defense and to call upon Wayne to create a new military force capable of overcoming Native American resistance to settler expansion in the Ohio Valley. Gaff relies on a comprehensive analysis of primary evidence to offer an alternative to the "confusing, ill-constructed, and often just plain false" (xiii) scholarship produced to date on Wayne. In many ways, Gaff's monograph mirrors aspects of his protagonist's character; it is methodical, possessed of an eye for symbolism, and ultimately unable to view Native Americans as anything other than savage obstacles to the advancing tide of American civilization.Gaff aims to retrieve the story of Wayne's campaign from the shadows of Americans' historical consciousness and to make its case as "one of the most stupendous undertakings in U.S. history" (xiv). To accomplish this goal, he provides a meticulously researched account of the rise of the Legion of the United States between 1792 and 1794. Wayne's efforts to recruit, train, supply, and discipline his charges are recounted in comprehensive detail. Gaff spares no effort to provide information at what might be considered a genealogical level for many of the officers and enlisted men who served with Wayne, as well as for Wayne himself. We learn, for example, that on Christmas Day, 1792, Wayne "threw up a Green seated jelley from [his] Stummach" (80).Gaff's work represents an important contribution to the early history of the United States military. Yet as a history of Wayne's campaign, Gaff's study is situated entirely on the American side of the hill. The author makes very little effort to comprehend the strategy and objectives of Wayne's Native American and British opponents. Eschewing any substantial analytical complexity in his narrative, the author asserts that the 1783 Treaty of Paris transformed the Ohio Valley into American soil. Gaff thus undermines the rationale for both Native American and British resistance to American expansion and normalizes the attitudes of frontier settlers, who sought to deal with Indians only through "fear and terror" (133) and who objected to British retention of posts in the Great Lakes region after 1783. In fact, as Gaff partially acknowledges (235), the British continued to occupy Niagara, Michilimackinac, and Detroit after the Revolutionary War in hopes of securing American compliance with articles in the 1783 Treaty of Paris pertaining to prewar debts and to Loyalist claims for damages in the Revolutionary War. Native Americans, who had no seat at the diplomatic bargaining table in Paris, not only objected to being held to terms negotiated by others; they also knew that the United States had no other claim than ink on paper to lands northwest of the Ohio River after 1783. Thus, when Native Americans spent the next decade raiding frontier towns, destroying livestock, taking captives, and defeating American militiamen and regulars in both pitched and guerrilla-style battles, they were fighting to defend their homelands and their way of life, not engaging in illegitimate acts of senseless, brutal savagery. …

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  • Authors: M. Benjamin Mollov;
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  • Authors: Michael A. Verney;
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  • Authors: M. J. Morgan;

    Indians, Alcohol, and the Roads to Taos and Santa Fe. By William E. Unrau. (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2013. Pp. 192. Cloth, $29.95.)Reviewed by M. J. MorganAs Emeritus Distinguished Professor of History at Wichita State University and author or coauthor of ten books about Indians, William E. Unrau is a consummate scholar in an important field. His earlier study, White Man's Wicked Water: The Alcohol Trade and Prohibition in Indian Country, 1802-1892 (Lawrence, KS, 1996), is the precursor to his new work on alcohol distribution in the Trans-Mississippi and Mountain West. Earlier, Unrau argued that federal policies and private capital merged as a force in Indian dispossession, and that the cession of Indian lands was both a result of an increased dependency on alcohol and the means by which Indian alcoholism was exacerbated.Unrau's gift is the careful probing of complex and concomitant sociopolitical events; he establishes big-picture processes for readers. In the new book, he focuses on "how it came to pass that distilled alcohol . . . was in fact easily obtainable by so many resident and transient Indians" (2). Thus, his narrative concerns interlocking processes: ambitious westward expansion via trails and trade routes to the Southwest; evolving federal policies regulating land cessions and alcohol sales in Indian country; Indian mobility both as removed emigrant tribes and as Great Plains bison hunters; and finally, the devastating consequences of Indian presence along routes moving prodigious quantities of alcohol.Unrau's scope of study is tight: the years 1821-1846 in the land penetrated and impacted by the Santa Fe Trail. This land stretched from the Missouri River to Colorado and northern New Mexico, and included reservations of Indians removed from eastern states, such as the Shawnee and the Miami. The trail also passed through ancestral lands of Kansa Indians and cut across traditional hunting territories of Plains equestrian tribes: Southern Cheyenne, Kiowa, and Sioux. These three Indian groups, each with differing trade behaviors, histories of interaction with whites, and use of natural resources, have too often been discussed as s single population. Unrau understands that the Santa Fe Trail drove the establishment of settlement nuclei where alcohol could be stored, sold, and disseminated to ready buyers; and this process played out from Westport (Kansas City) to Taos. Bent's Fort in Colorado was by far the most important of these sites. Native Americans became magnetized to the trail as a conduit of market economy forces. Unrau traces the hot core of those market forces to the "enormous profits . . . traders could obtain from Indians so long as they were agreeable to alcohol as the preferred payment for bison robes" 119). He also examines federal annuity payments to Indians in eastern and central Kansas. Annuities, usually included as part of land cession treaties, simply provided the means to purchase rather than trade for alcohol.Seen as an argument recognizing western trails as a causal factor in Indian alcoholism, this short study is powerful. Historical literature is rife with observations by European and American travelers and military personnel, who all stated that Indians at trading posts were frequently drunk, violent, unpredictable, and loathsome. Unrau adroitly shows such observations as evidence of the impact of alcohol dissemination and unregulated policies, rather than evidence of Indian weakness. …

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  • Authors: Mary L. Gautier;
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  • Authors: John, Richard R.;

    This essay challenges the theory-driven approach to early American statecraft that was popularized by political scientist Stephen Skowronek by surveying recent historical writing on the early American state. Much of this writing falls into one of three overlapping genres that sets out to answer a different question. Was the early republic a prelude to things to come; a project with a distinctive character; or a promise that a later generation might wish to redeem? The first genre analyzes the early American state as a prelude to later events such as the New Deal and the civil rights movement of the 1960s. The second genre treats governmental institutions in the early republic as a project that had a coherence and integrity that has been overlooked, disparaged, or forgotten. The third genre follows the lead of colonist John Murrin and tries to recover the promise of the early American state by emphasizing the founders' ideals, the magnitude of the challenge they confronted, and the distinctiveness of the governmental institutions that they built. While this historical writing is diverse, it shares three premises that Murrin rejected. First, that the Jeffersonians were not the only or even necessarily the primary actors even on the national stage; second, that governmental institutions, as distinct from the interests of specific social groups, can be agents of change; and, third, that the state in the early republic diverged in substantive ways from the state in the colonial past.

    Journal of the Early...arrow_drop_down
    Journal of the Early Republic
    Article . 2018 . Peer-reviewed
    Data sources: Crossref
    https://doi.org/10.7916/d8-xw2...
    Other literature type . 2018
    Data sources: Datacite
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      Journal of the Early Republic
      Article . 2018 . Peer-reviewed
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      https://doi.org/10.7916/d8-xw2...
      Other literature type . 2018
      Data sources: Datacite
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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Richard D. Shiels; Roger D. Launius; John E. Hallwas;
    image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/ Journal of the Early...arrow_drop_down
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    Journal of the Early Republic
    Article . 1998 . Peer-reviewed
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    Western Historical Quarterly
    Article . 1997 . Peer-reviewed
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      Journal of the Early Republic
      Article . 1998 . Peer-reviewed
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      Western Historical Quarterly
      Article . 1997 . Peer-reviewed
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    Authors: Willard Carl Klunder; Adrian George Traas;
    image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/ Journal of the Early...arrow_drop_down
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    Journal of the Early Republic
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    Journal of the Early Republic
    Article . 1994 . Peer-reviewed
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      Article . 1994 . Peer-reviewed
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  • Authors: George Price; Theda Perdue;
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    Authors: Mikhail Suslov;
    image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/ Journal of Church an...arrow_drop_down
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    Journal of Church and State
    Article . 2020 . Peer-reviewed
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      image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/ Journal of Church an...arrow_drop_down
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      Journal of Church and State
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  • Authors: Jon Parmenter;

    Bayonets in the Wilderness: Anthony Wayne's Legion in the Old Northwest. By Alan D. Gaff. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004. Pp. 416. Cloth, $39.95.)Alan D. Gaff opens his account of General Anthony Wayne's campaign against the Native Americans of the Ohio Valley with an impressive narrative reconstruction of the November 1791 Battle of Kekionga, in which a confederated Indian force under the Miami leader Little Turtle annihilated American forces under General Arthur St. Clair. This defeat motivated the United States War Department to revise its approach to frontier defense and to call upon Wayne to create a new military force capable of overcoming Native American resistance to settler expansion in the Ohio Valley. Gaff relies on a comprehensive analysis of primary evidence to offer an alternative to the "confusing, ill-constructed, and often just plain false" (xiii) scholarship produced to date on Wayne. In many ways, Gaff's monograph mirrors aspects of his protagonist's character; it is methodical, possessed of an eye for symbolism, and ultimately unable to view Native Americans as anything other than savage obstacles to the advancing tide of American civilization.Gaff aims to retrieve the story of Wayne's campaign from the shadows of Americans' historical consciousness and to make its case as "one of the most stupendous undertakings in U.S. history" (xiv). To accomplish this goal, he provides a meticulously researched account of the rise of the Legion of the United States between 1792 and 1794. Wayne's efforts to recruit, train, supply, and discipline his charges are recounted in comprehensive detail. Gaff spares no effort to provide information at what might be considered a genealogical level for many of the officers and enlisted men who served with Wayne, as well as for Wayne himself. We learn, for example, that on Christmas Day, 1792, Wayne "threw up a Green seated jelley from [his] Stummach" (80).Gaff's work represents an important contribution to the early history of the United States military. Yet as a history of Wayne's campaign, Gaff's study is situated entirely on the American side of the hill. The author makes very little effort to comprehend the strategy and objectives of Wayne's Native American and British opponents. Eschewing any substantial analytical complexity in his narrative, the author asserts that the 1783 Treaty of Paris transformed the Ohio Valley into American soil. Gaff thus undermines the rationale for both Native American and British resistance to American expansion and normalizes the attitudes of frontier settlers, who sought to deal with Indians only through "fear and terror" (133) and who objected to British retention of posts in the Great Lakes region after 1783. In fact, as Gaff partially acknowledges (235), the British continued to occupy Niagara, Michilimackinac, and Detroit after the Revolutionary War in hopes of securing American compliance with articles in the 1783 Treaty of Paris pertaining to prewar debts and to Loyalist claims for damages in the Revolutionary War. Native Americans, who had no seat at the diplomatic bargaining table in Paris, not only objected to being held to terms negotiated by others; they also knew that the United States had no other claim than ink on paper to lands northwest of the Ohio River after 1783. Thus, when Native Americans spent the next decade raiding frontier towns, destroying livestock, taking captives, and defeating American militiamen and regulars in both pitched and guerrilla-style battles, they were fighting to defend their homelands and their way of life, not engaging in illegitimate acts of senseless, brutal savagery. …

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  • Authors: M. Benjamin Mollov;
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  • Authors: Michael A. Verney;
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  • Authors: M. J. Morgan;

    Indians, Alcohol, and the Roads to Taos and Santa Fe. By William E. Unrau. (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2013. Pp. 192. Cloth, $29.95.)Reviewed by M. J. MorganAs Emeritus Distinguished Professor of History at Wichita State University and author or coauthor of ten books about Indians, William E. Unrau is a consummate scholar in an important field. His earlier study, White Man's Wicked Water: The Alcohol Trade and Prohibition in Indian Country, 1802-1892 (Lawrence, KS, 1996), is the precursor to his new work on alcohol distribution in the Trans-Mississippi and Mountain West. Earlier, Unrau argued that federal policies and private capital merged as a force in Indian dispossession, and that the cession of Indian lands was both a result of an increased dependency on alcohol and the means by which Indian alcoholism was exacerbated.Unrau's gift is the careful probing of complex and concomitant sociopolitical events; he establishes big-picture processes for readers. In the new book, he focuses on "how it came to pass that distilled alcohol . . . was in fact easily obtainable by so many resident and transient Indians" (2). Thus, his narrative concerns interlocking processes: ambitious westward expansion via trails and trade routes to the Southwest; evolving federal policies regulating land cessions and alcohol sales in Indian country; Indian mobility both as removed emigrant tribes and as Great Plains bison hunters; and finally, the devastating consequences of Indian presence along routes moving prodigious quantities of alcohol.Unrau's scope of study is tight: the years 1821-1846 in the land penetrated and impacted by the Santa Fe Trail. This land stretched from the Missouri River to Colorado and northern New Mexico, and included reservations of Indians removed from eastern states, such as the Shawnee and the Miami. The trail also passed through ancestral lands of Kansa Indians and cut across traditional hunting territories of Plains equestrian tribes: Southern Cheyenne, Kiowa, and Sioux. These three Indian groups, each with differing trade behaviors, histories of interaction with whites, and use of natural resources, have too often been discussed as s single population. Unrau understands that the Santa Fe Trail drove the establishment of settlement nuclei where alcohol could be stored, sold, and disseminated to ready buyers; and this process played out from Westport (Kansas City) to Taos. Bent's Fort in Colorado was by far the most important of these sites. Native Americans became magnetized to the trail as a conduit of market economy forces. Unrau traces the hot core of those market forces to the "enormous profits . . . traders could obtain from Indians so long as they were agreeable to alcohol as the preferred payment for bison robes" 119). He also examines federal annuity payments to Indians in eastern and central Kansas. Annuities, usually included as part of land cession treaties, simply provided the means to purchase rather than trade for alcohol.Seen as an argument recognizing western trails as a causal factor in Indian alcoholism, this short study is powerful. Historical literature is rife with observations by European and American travelers and military personnel, who all stated that Indians at trading posts were frequently drunk, violent, unpredictable, and loathsome. Unrau adroitly shows such observations as evidence of the impact of alcohol dissemination and unregulated policies, rather than evidence of Indian weakness. …

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  • Authors: Mary L. Gautier;
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