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  • Authors: De Groot, Joanna;

    This thesis explored the possibilities of regional history as a basis for understanding the development of society in Iran in the nineteenth century. It begins by defining some conceptual problems needing dis- cussion in order to embark on such a history. The choice of a regional society as the unit of study, and the selection of Kennan in particular are examined. The problem of source material is dealt with by a survey of the sources used in the study of nineteenth century Kennan. The emergence of the region as a geographical and historical entity is then summarised in order to clarify its identity as it appeared by the nineteenth century. The central section of the thesis is an examina- tion of the important aspects of material life in Kerman. The rural sector is discussed first as being dominant in economy and society, with a survey of crop production being followed by examination of rural technology and society, and then a discussion of landlord-cultivator relations. The urban sector is then analysed in terms of a survey of craft production and then of social organisation. A separate chapter examines the sphere of circulation linking urban and rural sectors, looking at urban-rural contacts especially as articulated by landlord- peasant relations, and also at the links between Kennan and other regions, and with international markets. There is an appendix on the special case of pastoral ism and nomadism. The last section of the thesis uses the understanding of society which has emerged in an analysis of politics. Discussion of useful definitions of this term is followed by examination of various levels of political life, and more specifically of the decade 1905-1915. Finally conclusions are drawn about the contribution of this regional study to better under- standing of history arid society in Iran,

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    Authors: Bunyan, A; Bunyan, Alix;

    This thesis situates the life and work of Virginia Woolf in a socio-literary history of writing by, and attitudes towards, children. It explores late-Victorian middle-class children's lives, and the relationships between parents and children during the period. Although Darwinian ideals had begun to influence parents earlier in the century, it was not until the 1870s that they seem to have become prevalent in middle-class families. Through an examination of the expansion of evolutionary and developmental stage theories in the late Victorian years, the thesis puts forth the theory that middle-class adults of the period saw children as containing adult potential. It makes a study of how this view affected middle-class family life, child rearing, and children's culture during the period. It particularly investigates linguistic developmental theory and its effect on reading and writing education, and late-Victorian ideas of children's sexual development and the need for sexual education. The thesis examines how such theories led to changes in writing by children during the period, exploring nineteenth-century works by children, and focusing on the home manuscript magazine genre. It questions the late-Victorian belief that children wrote spontaneously and "naturally." It situates the juvenile writings of the Stephen children (of whom Woolf was one), using these texts as typical products of the late-nineteenth-century middle-class familial and cultural context that the thesis examines. This study allows me to propose a critical definition of late-nineteenth-century children's home magazine writing. The thesis goes on to argue that Woolf, while recognizing herself as a product of the late-Victorian middle classes and retaining some of the authorial qualities evident in her family's juvenile works, rebelled against the late- Victorian evolutionist-developmentalist view of childhood, and helped to create a new language in the process.

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    Authors: Roberts, T; Das, N;

    This thesis examines how the commedia dell’arte manifested in the English imagination in the period 1571-1611. This form of professional, semi-improvised performance practice emerged from Italy in the mid-sixteenth century to capture the hearts of audiences across Europe and introduce regional dramaturgies to the literary and theatrical innovations of the Cinquecento. There are frequent references to the masked stock characters and extemporising routines of the arte in extant English print, and scholars have often found parallels between the dramas and performance practices of English playwrights and Italian practitioners. However, these studies are complicated by the lack of direct exposure to the arte in performance. The Italians made only a handful of visits to England in the 1570s, after which they would not set foot on English soil again for over twenty years. Utilising methods from contemporary transcultural theory, this thesis approaches the commedia dell’arte as a culturally porous theatrical apparatus of constituent parts that became disentangled from the whole during their migratory journey. These constituent parts were transferred at different rates, at different times and through different means, and as such were adapted and repurposed to the demands of specific cultural and political moments along the way. In other words, the commedia dell’arte did not pass into the English imagination all at once, a direct exchange from one culture to another through sustained exposure to Italian performance, but rather percolated through a series of piecemeal translations and appropriations. As such, this thesis contends that the commedia dell’arte found in extant print and manuscript records in the period has little resemblance to or bearing on the activities of the Italian practitioners on the continent. Rather, it was highly situated and syncretic, constructed by writers and dramatists to interrogate and reflect anxieties over difference, belonging, and what it meant to be English.

    image/svg+xml Jakob Voss, based on art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina and Beao Closed Access logo, derived from PLoS Open Access logo. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg Jakob Voss, based on art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina and Beao Oxford University Re...arrow_drop_down
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    Authors: Raijmakers, L;

    Plasmodium vivax (Pv) malaria is a human infecting blood parasite distributed widely across both tropical and temperate regions. In order to increase the understanding of past dynamics influencing its current distribution, this thesis explores its origins, spread and evolutionary past through diversity and evolution of the mitochondrial genome. Exploring several different factors that would have affected its dispersal, including mosquito vector species and geographic distance, the main focus of Chapter 2 is on understanding when and with which past human migrations it spread across the continents of the Eastern Hemisphere. A special emphasis on the Melanesian region is included in Chapter 3, which shows considerable diversity in human populations and cultures, and has high incidence of all four species of human infecting malarias (P. vivax, P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. ovale). Although previous publications indicated an especially high level of diversity in Pv mitochondrial genomes in Melanesia; in this study it is shown to be a sampling artefact due to denser sampling. In both chapters a novel cross-disciplinary data comparison is undertaken, matching Pv mitochondrial genome phylogeny and population genetics with modern human mitochondrial genome data, human and hominid archaeological data, archaeological data from human commensal species and phylogenetic data from human associated diseases. Results indicate that not only the current Melanesian Pv but also the Pv strains found across the Asian continent to the east of India were likely introduced by the first wave of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) to leave Africa. The strong patterning seen across this eastern region has ostensibly been shaped not only by relatively stable human populations for the last several thousand years, but is also associated with a strong regional heterogeneity of mosquito vector species and clades. In contrast, the present study confirms previously observed homology in Pv mitochondrial genetics from India to the west. Presumably the homology is due to increased human population movement and contact between the western regions, as well as greater overlap in mosquito vector species across the region, as shown in this study. Even so, with the addition of data from new sites across the western half of the Eastern Hemisphere, including samples from central and western Asia, there is a detection of low levels of population diversity. Lastly, Chapter 4 gives an overview of the applications of different genetic markers used in malaria research over time, reviewing the continued value of using mitochondrial DNA, on its own and in combination with other available genetic data – in an age of whole genome sequencing.

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    Authors: Quembo, C;

    In 1983, the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (Frelimo) adopted Operation Production (OP), aiming, at least in discourse, at transforming the “unproductive people” deemed to be the cause of urban chaos into “productive people”, largely through agriculture in rural Mozambique. At its end in 1988, between 40,000 to 100, 000 people had been sent to rural Mozambique. Based on the analysis of the Frelimo leadership’s ideology and values, triangulated with oral stories of those subject to OP, information from the local and international press, in-depth interviews with members of the Frelimo leadership, mid-low-level state officials, Mozambican National Resistance (Renamo) members, workers from state companies, and observation from the field, this thesis tells the story of the making, implementation and end of OP through a retrospective analysis. It starts with a discussion of the colonial-period ideological construction that led to its urban management model. Then, it explores the trajectory of the Frelimo leadership, the origin of their ideas before tackling the ways in which this past shaped Frelimo’s imaginary of urban order that led to OP. The thesis then explores the relationship between ideology, imaginary and policy choice, and its implementation. Finally, it addresses the ways in which OP ended. I argue that the Frelimo leadership’s ideas, values and imaginary, shaped by their experience of colonial order, by their military experience during the liberation struggle, and by the socio-economic and political context of the 1970s and the 1980s, was decisive in the making and implementation of OP. It resulted from the Frelimo leadership’s ideology and imaginary, framed in their discourse, associated with the context of economic crisis and war of the late 1970s and the 1980s. More than increased production, emphasized in discourse, the main goal of OP was to achieve Frelimo’s urban order (the “socialist city”), which was inspired by the historical trajectory of its leadership. The way OP ended, against the Frelimo leadership’s wishes, reveals the limitation of ideology and values to maintain policy. The thesis demonstrates the importance of understanding the social and historical origins of the Frelimo leadership, their experiences and history, their ideological predisposition, and the context in which they constructed and used discourse to disentangle African politics, particularly in a highly centralized and ambitious party-state with no strong bourgeoisie or independent state bureaucracy, such as “socialist” Mozambique. The Frelimo leadership had their own perception of urban development, which can be explained through a retrospective and contextualized analysis of their discourse.

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    Oxford University Research Archive
    Doctoral thesis . 2021
    License: CC BY NC
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      Oxford University Research Archive
      Doctoral thesis . 2021
      License: CC BY NC
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    Authors: Hind, J;

    Surprisingly, clean mains water has only been universally available to the population of Oxfordshire since the second half of the 20th century. This thesis explores the different methods by which water was obtained between the end of the medieval period and the establishment of the contemporary water companies; it shows how archaeological remains can inform understanding of how different groups lived and interacted during that period. It attempts for the first time to catalogue water supply features within the county, having 910 entries to date. Patterns emerging from the data have been used to suggest themes for further study. Statistics and GIS mapping have demonstrated that the availability and quality of water, including the incidence of early holy and healing wells, are dominated firstly by geology and then by differences between the social classes and between urban and rural areas. Themes explored include the relationship between water and disease, whether water supplies differ between ‘open’ and ‘closed’ parishes, the evolution of holy wells into spas, water in leisure activities, its association with memorials and changing attitudes to hygiene. The thesis also examines the various designation systems in place for protecting historic monuments, the level of recording of water features on local and national lists of monuments and how appropriate this framework is for helping the conservation of a valuable resource.

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  • Authors: Saunders, Liane.;

    My study covers the period from the initial establishment of English representation at the Ottoman Porte with the capitulations of 1580 which established trading and diplomatic rights for English merchants, and the formal establishment of an embassy in 1583. I explore the development of the English embassy at Constantinople from its vulnerable first years through its growth in prestige during the 1620s and 1630s, to the zenith of its influence in the 1660s before the French began to dominate diplomatic business at the Porte. I examine English policy at the Porte from its first tentative attempts to secure a strategic alliance against the Spanish with the Ottomans in the Mediterranean, through the Thirty Years War in which both Ottoman and English authorities found themselves reluctantly embroiled and the domestic troubles which both suffered in the 1640s, culminating with the execution of Ibrahim I in 1648 and Charles I in 1649. I conclude with the period of stabilization in the 1650s when the English authorities reasserted coherent policies at home and abroad during the Protectorate and the Restoration. This was mirrored by a stabilisation of the Ottoman Empire after the first of the Köprülü Grand Viziers took the reins of power in 1656 and reasserted central control over the provinces and over Ottoman vassals on the peripheries of Ottoman territory. The thesis builds on work done on the English commercial expansion in the Levant and the commercial role of the embassy in the Constantinople. I seek to complement existing studies of particular embassies and personalities and to give a broader over-view of the development of Anglo-Ottoman diplomatic relations. I intend to open debate on the development of Ottoman foreign policy and the implementation of Ottoman diplomacy during the seventeenth century well before the Ottoman bureaucracy underwent the westernization which led to it being absorbed into the European diplomatic system during the late eighteenth century. In the introductory chapters I explore the development of diplomacy during this period to establish the different attitudes of the English governments who conducted a largely adhoc diplomacy until the late sixteenth century when they began to open a few key residences abroad, and the Ottoman authorities who maintained a strictly non-reciprocal form of policy with western nations which lay outside the Dar al-Islam or Muslim lands. I discuss the question of the duality of the embassy at Constantinople as both a commercial agency and a state department and examine the potential for conflict between the controlling interests of the Crown and the Levant Company. In two chapters on the domestic situations in England and the Ottoman Empire I assess the priorities of policy and the domestic and financial constraints on an active foreign policy. Both the Ottoman Empire and the English sought to secure their own state through internal stability and external alliances. Both states faced the same problems of hostility from their neighbours, internal rebellion and the need to provide for growing government expenditure. However, England and the Ottoman Empire differed in the way they approached their problems and had different resources to help them carry their policies through. The most notable contrast was that the Ottomans possessed a growing standing army while England relied on ad hoc levies until Cromwell's new model army. These chapters are intended to open the subject to two audiences: the Ottomanist and the Early Modern European/English Historian, and to place the Anglo-Ottoman relationship within a broader diplomatic context. I have divided the thesis into three parts, each exploring a different aspect of diplomatic relations between Whitehall and the Porte, centring on the role of the embassy at Constantinople. The opening of direct diplomatic relations with the Porte was the first sustained diplomatic contact the English had established with a non-Christian nation and formed the model for later diplomatic contacts with non-European nations. As a whole, my study contributes to an understanding of how England adapted to the non-reciprocal diplomacy of the Ottoman Porte and to the operation of diplomacy by a Christian nation in a non-Christian state. I also explore the development of English policy in the Mediterranean and place the Anglo-Ottoman diplomatic relationship in its European context. In part one I examine the function of the etiquette system at the Ottoman Porte and assess the importance of protocol conventions and the extent to which they affected the status of the ambassador and the progress of negotiations. I explore the status of western ambassadors within the Ottoman system and illustrate the adaptability and sophistication of the Forte's ceremonial system. I address the problem of the Forte's attitude to western states, recognising that there was ambiguity over whether such states were treated as representatives of tributary states or as honoured guests. I also explore the role which gift-giving, both official and unofficial, played in assessments of status and the complicated issue of diplomatic precedent, where western ambassadors attempted to assert their own concepts of status on the Ottoman system. In a further chapter I demonstrate how the English ambassador fitted into the English Court system and contrast English diplomatic ceremonial with that of the Porte. I provide an outline of the development of the conflict between the Crown, which endorsed the ambassador, and the Levant Company, which paid for him, to resolve the question of whether the embassy in Constantinople was indeed an embassy in the true sense. In this chapter I also explore the position of the few quasi-official Ottoman representatives who attended the English Court despite the official non-reciprocal diplomatic stance of the Porte. I examine the ceremonial which was provided for them and illustrate how the English system adapted to deal with this new phenomenon. This first part does not stand in isolation from the sections dealing with actual negotiations at the Porte but I intend it to place the diplomatic representatives in the framework in which they operated and establish the principles of status through which they proceeded to negotiations. In part two I consider the development of the administrative structure of the embassy in Constantinople. I include an assessment of both English and local staff, and attempt to resolve questions of the experience and efficiency of administrative personnel and of the ambassadors whom they served. I also explore the function of the embassy and establish the chains of command and channels of communication which the embassy involves. I explore the development of chancery practice during this period and give an outline of the Ottoman petition system through which all negotiations were initiated. I confront the problem of prompt authorization of documents and examine the use of a possible 'deputed Great Seal' by the embassy. The roles of Ottoman officials, especially the role of the Grand Vizier and the developing role of the Reisūlkūttab (Chief Scribe to the Divan) in foreign affairs are also discussed. Finally, in this section I consider the problems of security and communications within the region and examines the importance of the English consular network. The purpose of this section is to build up a picture of the operation of the embassy on a day to day basis to from a background to the various negotiations discussed in the final section. The final section forms the bulk of the thesis where I assess policy development in Anglo-Ottoman diplomatic relations. In the chapters of this section I explore the various types of negotiations conducted at the Porte by English ambassadors. Because the greater weight of accessible evidence is that of the English sources, the structure of the chapters is determined by English considerations and interests in the region. Nevertheless, I have made some attempt to balance this with Ottoman sources where possible. In the first chapter in this section I deal with the nature of the capitulations, the grants of privileged status, by which the English communities were permitted to live and trade in the Ottoman Empire. I discuss the different interpretations placed upon these capitulations by the Porte, which viewed it as a unilateral grant given personally by the sultan, and by western ambassadors, who viewed it more as a bilateral agreement. I explore the ways in which the ambassador regulated the merchants and registered their contracts to provide legal protection for their commercial activities. I examine the advantages of the English Company structure over the more disconnected consular and commercial structures which the French and Venetian communities used. The English system simplified the chain of command from the English ambassador to the English merchant community and ensured that changes in commercial practice required to protect the merchants could be implemented rapidly. This made the English the most successful trading nation in the region. The Dutch, who did not gain independent status at the Porte until 1612 tried to emulate the English custom of using an officer of dual diplomatic and commercial status. They did so with some success in the early years of their residence at the Porte but failed to establish the embassy support team upon which the English used to such effect. This meant that Dutch success was completely dependent on the calibre of their agent which diminished from the late 1630s. In this chapter I also explore the cooperation and competition between the resident western ambassadors to gain extra status and privileges for their communities. In a further chapter I examine the different experiences of the English communities in Constantinople, Smyrna and Aleppo, and highlight the problems which English merchants encountered with local interpretations of and indifference to the Capitulations, thus contributing to the debate on the extent of central Ottoman control on the peripheries. I demonstrate that the English system of locally based consuls allowed minor disputes to be settled at a local level, with only major disputes involving infringements of English diplomatic privileges referred to the ambassador and presented to the Porte as the final court of appeal. Moving out from the immediate protection of the merchant communities, I explore the development of policy in the Mediterranean zone in two chapters. The first examines the issues of security and the strategic importance of the area as demonstrated by the extension of English capitulations to cover the Barbary states and naval responses to piracy in the region. I suggest that the attitude of the English authorities towards the Mediterranean changed with the establishment of permanent, growing English communities throughout the region. The state accepted more responsibility for security in the region although it was not always suitably organised or financially able to carry its responsibilities through. The second concentrates on diplomatic attempts to deal with individual cases of piracy and the problems which that brought to ambassadors. I demonstrate the weakness of the Porte to resolve cases involving the Barbary pirates but show that where possible, the Porte was willing to do what it could to resolve genuine cases of piracy, recognising that the English authorities lacked control over all English pirates and did what they could, when they could. In this chapter I also tackle the more complicated issue of English piracy in the region and establishes the pattern of diplomacy used to free even guilty parties from Ottoman captivity. I also explore the difficult position in which the English found themselves during the Venetian-Ottoman Cretan War from 1645-69 when they were coerced to participate and accused of collaboration with the enemy by both sides. Ambassadors had to protect merchants from Venetian blockades and Ottoman conscription and did so with some success. In the final chapters I look further afield to England's wider high-level diplomatic negotiations at the Porte. In one chapter I explore the pivotal role which the Anglo-Ottoman relationship played in English hopes of containing the Habsburg threat. This encompasses the anti-Spanish alliance which first sealed Anglo-Ottoman diplomatic relations and Anglo- Ottoman participation in the balance of power struggle for the central European princedoms. I focus on the intense diplomacy of the late 1620s when the English Crown used several avenues, including the Ottoman vassal state of Transylvania, to pursue its policy of containing the Habsburgs. While more work is required on the Ottoman and Transylvanian attitudes to this policy, my examination of the English role in trying to draw the Transylvanians from an Ottoman orbit to a Protestant alliance adds a new dimension to work done on England's European foreign policy objectives. In the final chapter I assess the English commitment to a idea of a 'corps of Christendom' and the effects this concept had upon English policy at the Porte. Historians have already established that English writers and commentators in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century clung to the notion of a united Christian community in spite of the conflicts of the Reformation. This chapter explores the manifestations of this idea at the Porte through the English mediation on behalf of the Poles in the 1620s and a joint Swedish- Transylvanian deputation in the 1650s. As part of such attempts to create a role for the English as champions of Christendom generally, the English ambassadors were also charged with the task of defending the Orthodox Church against the influence of the Jesuits and with creating an anti-Rome alliance. In these chapters I demonstrate that despite the remarkable success of the English at the Porte, there were limitations to their policy at the Porte. I emphasise that the Porte had its own foreign policy agenda, which did not dance to the tune of Western ambassadors at the Porte. I also suggest that the Anglo-Ottoman relationship should be explored as part of a wider picture as the English authorities viewed the it within a European context and saw it as a balancing element in European power struggles. My study by no means exhausts the subject of Anglo-Ottoman diplomatic relations during this period and in some ways raises more questions than it answers, begging questions about the extent of English involvement in piracy in the Mediterranean and in the Venetian- Ottoman Cretan war as well as questions about the attitude of the Porte to English involvement in Transylvanian affairs during the Thirty Years War and beyond. Nevertheless, it establishes the advantages which the English had over their rivals at the Porte and the success they achieved in their routine diplomacy at the Porte. The English were able to capitalise on their effective organisation and able ambassadors to achieve a more than adequate level of protection for English communities, trade and interests within the Ottoman Empire. They even used the Anglo-Ottoman relationship to achieve several, albeit limited, successes in establishing security in the Mediterranean and in contributing towards a balance of power diplomacy in Europe as a whole.

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    Authors: Rees, T; Rees, Timothy John;

    This thesis analyses rural social and political conflict in the province of Badajoz (Extremadura) during the Spanish Second Republic of 1931 to 1936. It takes a broad approach to social and political change in a province typical of southern Spain, but focusses particularly on the under-explored role of powerful agrarian elites opposed to the reforms introduced by the new liberal-democratic regime. The study begins with two complementary chapters covering the period 1870-1930; they consider the evolution of the autocratic rural order presided over by the elite and discuss the growth of the challenge to agrian power from organised rural labour. In the following chapters covering in detail the period 1931 to 1936 the partial transformat ion of the rural order that accompanied the transition to the Republic, the subsequent processes of social and political struggle, and the polarisation that followed are documented. A final epilogue considers the Civil War as a rural counter-revolution that involved the resurgence of agrarian autocracy in Badajoz. The thesis draws on a wide range of primary materials, from archives and printed sources to memoirs, and utilizes the relevant secondary literature. In general the study forms part of a movement to reach a deeper understanding of social and political change during the Republic and in particular offers new perspectives on the contribution of the 'agrarian question' to the breakdown of the regime and the origins of the Civil War.

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    Authors: Song, R; Song, Robert;

    A study of Christian interpretations of liberalism is important for social theology for two reasons: first, liberalism is the dominant political ideology of modernity, and (especially in the form "liberal democracy") is the most prominent form of public self-definition in the West, its claims often being taken to be self-evidently true. Second, liberalism is historically indebted to Christianity, and the two are susceptible of mutual confusion. A critical theological analysis of liberalism is necessary to ensure the authentically Christian nature of contemporary political theology. This analysis is conducted principally through a discussion of the criticisms of liberalism made by three Christian thinkers of the twentieth century, the American Reinhold Niebuhr (1892-1971), the French Jacques Maritain (1882-1973), and the Canadian George Grant (1918-1988). After an introductory chapter, chapter two presents an interpretation of liberalism, mapping the historical contours and varieties of liberalism from five liberal writers, and elaborating a loose framework of the conceptual structure of liberal thought. Chapter three examines Reinhold Niebuhr's criticisms of liberalism's alleged facile progressivism and optimistic conceptions of human nature and reason, and chapter four looks at George Grant's claim that John Rawls' liberal theory fails to provide the ontological affirmations necessary to defend human beings and liberal values against the dynamics of technology. Jacques Maritain's account of pluralism and the ideal of the secular state, and the contribution he can make to the current debate between liberals and communitarians, are the subjects of chapter five, while chapter six attempts to secure some theological purchase on the issues of Bills of Rights, judicial review, and the constitutional restraint of democratic majorities, with special reference to the British context. In the concluding chapter it is argued that the liberal account of justice is impossible to realize, and that central insights must be borrowed from the Augustinian tradition.

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    Authors: Briggs, EH;

    Finding a way to accurately characterise the contents of cargoes from ancient Mediterranean shipwrecks would provide invaluable insight into economic, agricultural, and social transformations in antiquity. The three forms in which ancient shipwreck cargo items survive in the archaeological record, as macro-remains, visible residues, and molecules invisible to the naked eye, are analysed here in order to better understand what these ships were transporting, and why. Despite the abundance of preserved organic material found on shipwrecks, the use of stable isotope analysis on waterlogged archaeological plant material remains largely unexplored. Here we present the results from a small, preliminary isotopic study of olive stones recovered from the 4th century B.C.E. Mazotos shipwreck, Cyprus. Analyses of the stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen are conducted on 20 ancient, waterlogged olive stones from the Mazotos wreck and 10 modern olive stones from Chios, Greece. The extent of lipid retention, and preservation of original isotopic composition is explored. The possibility of determining the geographic origin of the Mazotos olive stones by isotope analysis is assessed. The majority of amphorae recovered from ancient shipwrecks appear empty on first inspection, or with barely visible residues adhering to the vessel walls. Ceramic vessels thought to have contained either wine or olive oil recovered from multiple Mediterranean shipwrecks and one terrestrial site are analysed through GC-MS to investigate past vessel contents. Assumptions regarding vessel shape as a determining factor in past use are discussed. Environmental samples from shipwreck sites are analysed and compared with results from GC-MS. Results show a prevalence of conifer products in vessels thought to have contained wine. Environmental samples of seafloor sediment and soil from both the shipwrecks and the terrestrial site contain syringic acid, calling into question the utility of relying on syringic acid as a wine biomarker. Molecules from unexpected or unusual contents were detected in several vessels. The third method by which this research attempts to characterise ancient shipwreck cargo items is through ancient DNA analysis. There is tremendous potential for DNA studies to resolve long-standing questions in both terrestrial and underwater archaeology. Great optimism for the recovery of ancient DNA (aDNA) from maritime sites has spurred a series of studies claiming to have successfully extracted aDNA from a variety of artefacts recovered from underwater sites including plant remains, human skeletons, and shipwreck amphorae. However, these studies have not adequately addressed the source of the DNA recovered: does it derive from taxa present in the underwater deposition environment or the artefact itself? My research attempts to address this ambiguity by examining the efficacy of extracting aDNA from the ceramic matrix of vessels recovered from six ancient Mediterranean shipwrecks and establishing what DNA can be found in the water column and seafloor sediments that surround these sites. The methods used in this research are designed to enhance current methods, which do not characterise the deposition environment, and utilises shotgun metagenomics to characterise the DNA found on ancient shipwreck sites.

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  • Authors: De Groot, Joanna;

    This thesis explored the possibilities of regional history as a basis for understanding the development of society in Iran in the nineteenth century. It begins by defining some conceptual problems needing dis- cussion in order to embark on such a history. The choice of a regional society as the unit of study, and the selection of Kennan in particular are examined. The problem of source material is dealt with by a survey of the sources used in the study of nineteenth century Kennan. The emergence of the region as a geographical and historical entity is then summarised in order to clarify its identity as it appeared by the nineteenth century. The central section of the thesis is an examina- tion of the important aspects of material life in Kerman. The rural sector is discussed first as being dominant in economy and society, with a survey of crop production being followed by examination of rural technology and society, and then a discussion of landlord-cultivator relations. The urban sector is then analysed in terms of a survey of craft production and then of social organisation. A separate chapter examines the sphere of circulation linking urban and rural sectors, looking at urban-rural contacts especially as articulated by landlord- peasant relations, and also at the links between Kennan and other regions, and with international markets. There is an appendix on the special case of pastoral ism and nomadism. The last section of the thesis uses the understanding of society which has emerged in an analysis of politics. Discussion of useful definitions of this term is followed by examination of various levels of political life, and more specifically of the decade 1905-1915. Finally conclusions are drawn about the contribution of this regional study to better under- standing of history arid society in Iran,

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    Authors: Bunyan, A; Bunyan, Alix;

    This thesis situates the life and work of Virginia Woolf in a socio-literary history of writing by, and attitudes towards, children. It explores late-Victorian middle-class children's lives, and the relationships between parents and children during the period. Although Darwinian ideals had begun to influence parents earlier in the century, it was not until the 1870s that they seem to have become prevalent in middle-class families. Through an examination of the expansion of evolutionary and developmental stage theories in the late Victorian years, the thesis puts forth the theory that middle-class adults of the period saw children as containing adult potential. It makes a study of how this view affected middle-class family life, child rearing, and children's culture during the period. It particularly investigates linguistic developmental theory and its effect on reading and writing education, and late-Victorian ideas of children's sexual development and the need for sexual education. The thesis examines how such theories led to changes in writing by children during the period, exploring nineteenth-century works by children, and focusing on the home manuscript magazine genre. It questions the late-Victorian belief that children wrote spontaneously and "naturally." It situates the juvenile writings of the Stephen children (of whom Woolf was one), using these texts as typical products of the late-nineteenth-century middle-class familial and cultural context that the thesis examines. This study allows me to propose a critical definition of late-nineteenth-century children's home magazine writing. The thesis goes on to argue that Woolf, while recognizing herself as a product of the late-Victorian middle classes and retaining some of the authorial qualities evident in her family's juvenile works, rebelled against the late- Victorian evolutionist-developmentalist view of childhood, and helped to create a new language in the process.

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    Authors: Roberts, T; Das, N;

    This thesis examines how the commedia dell’arte manifested in the English imagination in the period 1571-1611. This form of professional, semi-improvised performance practice emerged from Italy in the mid-sixteenth century to capture the hearts of audiences across Europe and introduce regional dramaturgies to the literary and theatrical innovations of the Cinquecento. There are frequent references to the masked stock characters and extemporising routines of the arte in extant English print, and scholars have often found parallels between the dramas and performance practices of English playwrights and Italian practitioners. However, these studies are complicated by the lack of direct exposure to the arte in performance. The Italians made only a handful of visits to England in the 1570s, after which they would not set foot on English soil again for over twenty years. Utilising methods from contemporary transcultural theory, this thesis approaches the commedia dell’arte as a culturally porous theatrical apparatus of constituent parts that became disentangled from the whole during their migratory journey. These constituent parts were transferred at different rates, at different times and through different means, and as such were adapted and repurposed to the demands of specific cultural and political moments along the way. In other words, the commedia dell’arte did not pass into the English imagination all at once, a direct exchange from one culture to another through sustained exposure to Italian performance, but rather percolated through a series of piecemeal translations and appropriations. As such, this thesis contends that the commedia dell’arte found in extant print and manuscript records in the period has little resemblance to or bearing on the activities of the Italian practitioners on the continent. Rather, it was highly situated and syncretic, constructed by writers and dramatists to interrogate and reflect anxieties over difference, belonging, and what it meant to be English.

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    Authors: Raijmakers, L;

    Plasmodium vivax (Pv) malaria is a human infecting blood parasite distributed widely across both tropical and temperate regions. In order to increase the understanding of past dynamics influencing its current distribution, this thesis explores its origins, spread and evolutionary past through diversity and evolution of the mitochondrial genome. Exploring several different factors that would have affected its dispersal, including mosquito vector species and geographic distance, the main focus of Chapter 2 is on understanding when and with which past human migrations it spread across the continents of the Eastern Hemisphere. A special emphasis on the Melanesian region is included in Chapter 3, which shows considerable diversity in human populations and cultures, and has high incidence of all four species of human infecting malarias (P. vivax, P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. ovale). Although previous publications indicated an especially high level of diversity in Pv mitochondrial genomes in Melanesia; in this study it is shown to be a sampling artefact due to denser sampling. In both chapters a novel cross-disciplinary data comparison is undertaken, matching Pv mitochondrial genome phylogeny and population genetics with modern human mitochondrial genome data, human and hominid archaeological data, archaeological data from human commensal species and phylogenetic data from human associated diseases. Results indicate that not only the current Melanesian Pv but also the Pv strains found across the Asian continent to the east of India were likely introduced by the first wave of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) to leave Africa. The strong patterning seen across this eastern region has ostensibly been shaped not only by relatively stable human populations for the last several thousand years, but is also associated with a strong regional heterogeneity of mosquito vector species and clades. In contrast, the present study confirms previously observed homology in Pv mitochondrial genetics from India to the west. Presumably the homology is due to increased human population movement and contact between the western regions, as well as greater overlap in mosquito vector species across the region, as shown in this study. Even so, with the addition of data from new sites across the western half of the Eastern Hemisphere, including samples from central and western Asia, there is a detection of low levels of population diversity. Lastly, Chapter 4 gives an overview of the applications of different genetic markers used in malaria research over time, reviewing the continued value of using mitochondrial DNA, on its own and in combination with other available genetic data – in an age of whole genome sequencing.

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    Authors: Quembo, C;

    In 1983, the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (Frelimo) adopted Operation Production (OP), aiming, at least in discourse, at transforming the “unproductive people” deemed to be the cause of urban chaos into “productive people”, largely through agriculture in rural Mozambique. At its end in 1988, between 40,000 to 100, 000 people had been sent to rural Mozambique. Based on the analysis of the Frelimo leadership’s ideology and values, triangulated with oral stories of those subject to OP, information from the local and international press, in-depth interviews with members of the Frelimo leadership, mid-low-level state officials, Mozambican National Resistance (Renamo) members, workers from state companies, and observation from the field, this thesis tells the story of the making, implementation and end of OP through a retrospective analysis. It starts with a discussion of the colonial-period ideological construction that led to its urban management model. Then, it explores the trajectory of the Frelimo leadership, the origin of their ideas before tackling the ways in which this past shaped Frelimo’s imaginary of urban order that led to OP. The thesis then explores the relationship between ideology, imaginary and policy choice, and its implementation. Finally, it addresses the ways in which OP ended. I argue that the Frelimo leadership’s ideas, values and imaginary, shaped by their experience of colonial order, by their military experience during the liberation struggle, and by the socio-economic and political context of the 1970s and the 1980s, was decisive in the making and implementation of OP. It resulted from the Frelimo leadership’s ideology and imaginary, framed in their discourse, associated with the context of economic crisis and war of the late 1970s and the 1980s. More than increased production, emphasized in discourse, the main goal of OP was to achieve Frelimo’s urban order (the “socialist city”), which was inspired by the historical trajectory of its leadership. The way OP ended, against the Frelimo leadership’s wishes, reveals the limitation of ideology and values to maintain policy. The thesis demonstrates the importance of understanding the social and historical origins of the Frelimo leadership, their experiences and history, their ideological predisposition, and the context in which they constructed and used discourse to disentangle African politics, particularly in a highly centralized and ambitious party-state with no strong bourgeoisie or independent state bureaucracy, such as “socialist” Mozambique. The Frelimo leadership had their own perception of urban development, which can be explained through a retrospective and contextualized analysis of their discourse.

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    Doctoral thesis . 2021
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      Doctoral thesis . 2021
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    Authors: Hind, J;

    Surprisingly, clean mains water has only been universally available to the population of Oxfordshire since the second half of the 20th century. This thesis explores the different methods by which water was obtained between the end of the medieval period and the establishment of the contemporary water companies; it shows how archaeological remains can inform understanding of how different groups lived and interacted during that period. It attempts for the first time to catalogue water supply features within the county, having 910 entries to date. Patterns emerging from the data have been used to suggest themes for further study. Statistics and GIS mapping have demonstrated that the availability and quality of water, including the incidence of early holy and healing wells, are dominated firstly by geology and then by differences between the social classes and between urban and rural areas. Themes explored include the relationship between water and disease, whether water supplies differ between ‘open’ and ‘closed’ parishes, the evolution of holy wells into spas, water in leisure activities, its association with memorials and changing attitudes to hygiene. The thesis also examines the various designation systems in place for protecting historic monuments, the level of recording of water features on local and national lists of monuments and how appropriate this framework is for helping the conservation of a valuable resource.

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  • Authors: Saunders, Liane.;

    My study covers the period from the initial establishment of English representation at the Ottoman Porte with the capitulations of 1580 which established trading and diplomatic rights for English merchants, and the formal establishment of an embassy in 1583. I explore the development of the English embassy at Constantinople from its vulnerable first years through its growth in prestige during the 1620s and 1630s, to the zenith of its influence in the 1660s before the French began to dominate diplomatic business at the Porte. I examine English policy at the Porte from its first tentative attempts to secure a strategic alliance against the Spanish with the Ottomans in the Mediterranean, through the Thirty Years War in which both Ottoman and English authorities found themselves reluctantly embroiled and the domestic troubles which both suffered in the 1640s, culminating with the execution of Ibrahim I in 1648 and Charles I in 1649. I conclude with the period of stabilization in the 1650s when the English authorities reasserted coherent policies at home and abroad during the Protectorate and the Restoration. This was mirrored by a stabilisation of the Ottoman Empire after the first of the Köprülü Grand Viziers took the reins of power in 1656 and reasserted central control over the provinces and over Ottoman vassals on the peripheries of Ottoman territory. The thesis builds on work done on the English commercial expansion in the Levant and the commercial role of the embassy in the Constantinople. I seek to complement existing studies of particular embassies and personalities and to give a broader over-view of the development of Anglo-Ottoman diplomatic relations. I intend to open debate on the development of Ottoman foreign policy and the implementation of Ottoman diplomacy during the seventeenth century well before the Ottoman bureaucracy underwent the westernization which led to it being absorbed into the European diplomatic system during the late eighteenth century. In the introductory chapters I explore the development of diplomacy during this period to establish the different attitudes of the English governments who conducted a largely adhoc diplomacy until the late sixteenth century when they began to open a few key residences abroad, and the Ottoman authorities who maintained a strictly non-reciprocal form of policy with western nations which lay outside the Dar al-Islam or Muslim lands. I discuss the question of the duality of the embassy at Constantinople as both a commercial agency and a state department and examine the potential for conflict between the controlling interests of the Crown and the Levant Company. In two chapters on the domestic situations in England and the Ottoman Empire I assess the priorities of policy and the domestic and financial constraints on an active foreign policy. Both the Ottoman Empire and the English sought to secure their own state through internal stability and external alliances. Both states faced the same problems of hostility from their neighbours, internal rebellion and the need to provide for growing government expenditure. However, England and the Ottoman Empire differed in the way they approached their problems and had different resources to help them carry their policies through. The most notable contrast was that the Ottomans possessed a growing standing army while England relied on ad hoc levies until Cromwell's new model army. These chapters are intended to open the subject to two audiences: the Ottomanist and the Early Modern European/English Historian, and to place the Anglo-Ottoman relationship within a broader diplomatic context. I have divided the thesis into three parts, each exploring a different aspect of diplomatic relations between Whitehall and the Porte, centring on the role of the embassy at Constantinople. The opening of direct diplomatic relations with the Porte was the first sustained diplomatic contact the English had established with a non-Christian nation and formed the model for later diplomatic contacts with non-European nations. As a whole, my study contributes to an understanding of how England adapted to the non-reciprocal diplomacy of the Ottoman Porte and to the operation of diplomacy by a Christian nation in a non-Christian state. I also explore the development of English policy in the Mediterranean and place the Anglo-Ottoman diplomatic relationship in its European context. In part one I examine the function of the etiquette system at the Ottoman Porte and assess the importance of protocol conventions and the extent to which they affected the status of the ambassador and the progress of negotiations. I explore the status of western ambassadors within the Ottoman system and illustrate the adaptability and sophistication of the Forte's ceremonial system. I address the problem of the Forte's attitude to western states, recognising that there was ambiguity over whether such states were treated as representatives of tributary states or as honoured guests. I also explore the role which gift-giving, both official and unofficial, played in assessments of status and the complicated issue of diplomatic precedent, where western ambassadors attempted to assert their own concepts of status on the Ottoman system. In a further chapter I demonstrate how the English ambassador fitted into the English Court system and contrast English diplomatic ceremonial with that of the Porte. I provide an outline of the development of the conflict between the Crown, which endorsed the ambassador, and the Levant Company, which paid for him, to resolve the question of whether the embassy in Constantinople was indeed an embassy in the true sense. In this chapter I also explore the position of the few quasi-official Ottoman representatives who attended the English Court despite the official non-reciprocal diplomatic stance of the Porte. I examine the ceremonial which was provided for them and illustrate how the English system adapted to deal with this new phenomenon. This first part does not stand in isolation from the sections dealing with actual negotiations at the Porte but I intend it to place the diplomatic representatives in the framework in which they operated and establish the principles of status through which they proceeded to negotiations. In part two I consider the development of the administrative structure of the embassy in Constantinople. I include an assessment of both English and local staff, and attempt to resolve questions of the experience and efficiency of administrative personnel and of the ambassadors whom they served. I also explore the function of the embassy and establish the chains of command and channels of communication which the embassy involves. I explore the development of chancery practice during this period and give an outline of the Ottoman petition system through which all negotiations were initiated. I confront the problem of prompt authorization of documents and examine the use of a possible 'deputed Great Seal' by the embassy. The roles of Ottoman officials, especially the role of the Grand Vizier and the developing role of the Reisūlkūttab (Chief Scribe to the Divan) in foreign affairs are also discussed. Finally, in this section I consider the problems of security and communications within the region and examines the importance of the English consular network. The purpose of this section is to build up a picture of the operation of the embassy on a day to day basis to from a background to the various negotiations discussed in the final section. The final section forms the bulk of the thesis where I assess policy development in Anglo-Ottoman diplomatic relations. In the chapters of this section I explore the various types of negotiations conducted at the Porte by English ambassadors. Because the greater weight of accessible evidence is that of the English sources, the structure of the chapters is determined by English considerations and interests in the region. Nevertheless, I have made some attempt to balance this with Ottoman sources where possible. In the first chapter in this section I deal with the nature of the capitulations, the grants of privileged status, by which the English communities were permitted to live and trade in the Ottoman Empire. I discuss the different interpretations placed upon these capitulations by the Porte, which viewed it as a unilateral grant given personally by the sultan, and by western ambassadors, who viewed it more as a bilateral agreement. I explore the ways in which the ambassador regulated the merchants and registered their contracts to provide legal protection for their commercial activities. I examine the advantages of the English Company structure over the more disconnected consular and commercial structures which the French and Venetian communities used. The English system simplified the chain of command from the English ambassador to the English merchant community and ensured that changes in commercial practice required to protect the merchants could be implemented rapidly. This made the English the most successful trading nation in the region. The Dutch, who did not gain independent status at the Porte until 1612 tried to emulate the English custom of using an officer of dual diplomatic and commercial status. They did so with some success in the early years of their residence at the Porte but failed to establish the embassy support team upon which the English used to such effect. This meant that Dutch success was completely dependent on the calibre of their agent which diminished from the late 1630s. In this chapter I also explore the cooperation and competition between the resident western ambassadors to gain extra status and privileges for their communities. In a further chapter I examine the different experiences of the English communities in Constantinople, Smyrna and Aleppo, and highlight the problems which English merchants encountered with local interpretations of and indifference to the Capitulations, thus contributing to the debate on the extent of central Ottoman control on the peripheries. I demonstrate that the English system of locally based consuls allowed minor disputes to be settled at a local level, with only major disputes involving infringements of English diplomatic privileges referred to the ambassador and presented to the Porte as the final court of appeal. Moving out from the immediate protection of the merchant communities, I explore the development of policy in the Mediterranean zone in two chapters. The first examines the issues of security and the strategic importance of the area as demonstrated by the extension of English capitulations to cover the Barbary states and naval responses to piracy in the region. I suggest that the attitude of the English authorities towards the Mediterranean changed with the establishment of permanent, growing English communities throughout the region. The state accepted more responsibility for security in the region although it was not always suitably organised or financially able to carry its responsibilities through. The second concentrates on diplomatic attempts to deal with individual cases of piracy and the problems which that brought to ambassadors. I demonstrate the weakness of the Porte to resolve cases involving the Barbary pirates but show that where possible, the Porte was willing to do what it could to resolve genuine cases of piracy, recognising that the English authorities lacked control over all English pirates and did what they could, when they could. In this chapter I also tackle the more complicated issue of English piracy in the region and establishes the pattern of diplomacy used to free even guilty parties from Ottoman captivity. I also explore the difficult position in which the English found themselves during the Venetian-Ottoman Cretan War from 1645-69 when they were coerced to participate and accused of collaboration with the enemy by both sides. Ambassadors had to protect merchants from Venetian blockades and Ottoman conscription and did so with some success. In the final chapters I look further afield to England's wider high-level diplomatic negotiations at the Porte. In one chapter I explore the pivotal role which the Anglo-Ottoman relationship played in English hopes of containing the Habsburg threat. This encompasses the anti-Spanish alliance which first sealed Anglo-Ottoman diplomatic relations and Anglo- Ottoman participation in the balance of power struggle for the central European princedoms. I focus on the intense diplomacy of the late 1620s when the English Crown used several avenues, including the Ottoman vassal state of Transylvania, to pursue its policy of containing the Habsburgs. While more work is required on the Ottoman and Transylvanian attitudes to this policy, my examination of the English role in trying to draw the Transylvanians from an Ottoman orbit to a Protestant alliance adds a new dimension to work done on England's European foreign policy objectives. In the final chapter I assess the English commitment to a idea of a 'corps of Christendom' and the effects this concept had upon English policy at the Porte. Historians have already established that English writers and commentators in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century clung to the notion of a united Christian community in spite of the conflicts of the Reformation. This chapter explores the manifestations of this idea at the Porte through the English mediation on behalf of the Poles in the 1620s and a joint Swedish- Transylvanian deputation in the 1650s. As part of such attempts to create a role for the English as champions of Christendom generally, the English ambassadors were also charged with the task of defending the Orthodox Church against the influence of the Jesuits and with creating an anti-Rome alliance. In these chapters I demonstrate that despite the remarkable success of the English at the Porte, there were limitations to their policy at the Porte. I emphasise that the Porte had its own foreign policy agenda, which did not dance to the tune of Western ambassadors at the Porte. I also suggest that the Anglo-Ottoman relationship should be explored as part of a wider picture as the English authorities viewed the it within a European context and saw it as a balancing element in European power struggles. My study by no means exhausts the subject of Anglo-Ottoman diplomatic relations during this period and in some ways raises more questions than it answers, begging questions about the extent of English involvement in piracy in the Mediterranean and in the Venetian- Ottoman Cretan war as well as questions about the attitude of the Porte to English involvement in Transylvanian affairs during the Thirty Years War and beyond. Nevertheless, it establishes the advantages which the English had over their rivals at the Porte and the success they achieved in their routine diplomacy at the Porte. The English were able to capitalise on their effective organisation and able ambassadors to achieve a more than adequate level of protection for English communities, trade and interests within the Ottoman Empire. They even used the Anglo-Ottoman relationship to achieve several, albeit limited, successes in establishing security in the Mediterranean and in contributing towards a balance of power diplomacy in Europe as a whole.

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    Authors: Rees, T; Rees, Timothy John;

    This thesis analyses rural social and political conflict in the province of Badajoz (Extremadura) during the Spanish Second Republic of 1931 to 1936. It takes a broad approach to social and political change in a province typical of southern Spain, but focusses particularly on the under-explored role of powerful agrarian elites opposed to the reforms introduced by the new liberal-democratic regime. The study begins with two complementary chapters covering the period 1870-1930; they consider the evolution of the autocratic rural order presided over by the elite and discuss the growth of the challenge to agrian power from organised rural labour. In the following chapters covering in detail the period 1931 to 1936 the partial transformat ion of the rural order that accompanied the transition to the Republic, the subsequent processes of social and political struggle, and the polarisation that followed are documented. A final epilogue considers the Civil War as a rural counter-revolution that involved the resurgence of agrarian autocracy in Badajoz. The thesis draws on a wide range of primary materials, from archives and printed sources to memoirs, and utilizes the relevant secondary literature. In general the study forms part of a movement to reach a deeper understanding of social and political change during the Republic and in particular offers new perspectives on the contribution of the 'agrarian question' to the breakdown of the regime and the origins of the Civil War.

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    Authors: Song, R; Song, Robert;

    A study of Christian interpretations of liberalism is important for social theology for two reasons: first, liberalism is the dominant political ideology of modernity, and (especially in the form "liberal democracy") is the most prominent form of public self-definition in the West, its claims often being taken to be self-evidently true. Second, liberalism is historically indebted to Christianity, and the two are susceptible of mutual confusion. A critical theological analysis of liberalism is necessary to ensure the authentically Christian nature of contemporary political theology. This analysis is conducted principally through a discussion of the criticisms of liberalism made by three Christian thinkers of the twentieth century, the American Reinhold Niebuhr (1892-1971), the French Jacques Maritain (1882-1973), and the Canadian George Grant (1918-1988). After an introductory chapter, chapter two presents an interpretation of liberalism, mapping the historical contours and varieties of liberalism from five liberal writers, and elaborating a loose framework of the conceptual structure of liberal thought. Chapter three examines Reinhold Niebuhr's criticisms of liberalism's alleged facile progressivism and optimistic conceptions of human nature and reason, and chapter four looks at George Grant's claim that John Rawls' liberal theory fails to provide the ontological affirmations necessary to defend human beings and liberal values against the dynamics of technology. Jacques Maritain's account of pluralism and the ideal of the secular state, and the contribution he can make to the current debate between liberals and communitarians, are the subjects of chapter five, while chapter six attempts to secure some theological purchase on the issues of Bills of Rights, judicial review, and the constitutional restraint of democratic majorities, with special reference to the British context. In the concluding chapter it is argued that the liberal account of justice is impossible to realize, and that central insights must be borrowed from the Augustinian tradition.

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    Authors: Briggs, EH;

    Finding a way to accurately characterise the contents of cargoes from ancient Mediterranean shipwrecks would provide invaluable insight into economic, agricultural, and social transformations in antiquity. The three forms in which ancient shipwreck cargo items survive in the archaeological record, as macro-remains, visible residues, and molecules invisible to the naked eye, are analysed here in order to better understand what these ships were transporting, and why. Despite the abundance of preserved organic material found on shipwrecks, the use of stable isotope analysis on waterlogged archaeological plant material remains largely unexplored. Here we present the results from a small, preliminary isotopic study of olive stones recovered from the 4th century B.C.E. Mazotos shipwreck, Cyprus. Analyses of the stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen are conducted on 20 ancient, waterlogged olive stones from the Mazotos wreck and 10 modern olive stones from Chios, Greece. The extent of lipid retention, and preservation of original isotopic composition is explored. The possibility of determining the geographic origin of the Mazotos olive stones by isotope analysis is assessed. The majority of amphorae recovered from ancient shipwrecks appear empty on first inspection, or with barely visible residues adhering to the vessel walls. Ceramic vessels thought to have contained either wine or olive oil recovered from multiple Mediterranean shipwrecks and one terrestrial site are analysed through GC-MS to investigate past vessel contents. Assumptions regarding vessel shape as a determining factor in past use are discussed. Environmental samples from shipwreck sites are analysed and compared with results from GC-MS. Results show a prevalence of conifer products in vessels thought to have contained wine. Environmental samples of seafloor sediment and soil from both the shipwrecks and the terrestrial site contain syringic acid, calling into question the utility of relying on syringic acid as a wine biomarker. Molecules from unexpected or unusual contents were detected in several vessels. The third method by which this research attempts to characterise ancient shipwreck cargo items is through ancient DNA analysis. There is tremendous potential for DNA studies to resolve long-standing questions in both terrestrial and underwater archaeology. Great optimism for the recovery of ancient DNA (aDNA) from maritime sites has spurred a series of studies claiming to have successfully extracted aDNA from a variety of artefacts recovered from underwater sites including plant remains, human skeletons, and shipwreck amphorae. However, these studies have not adequately addressed the source of the DNA recovered: does it derive from taxa present in the underwater deposition environment or the artefact itself? My research attempts to address this ambiguity by examining the efficacy of extracting aDNA from the ceramic matrix of vessels recovered from six ancient Mediterranean shipwrecks and establishing what DNA can be found in the water column and seafloor sediments that surround these sites. The methods used in this research are designed to enhance current methods, which do not characterise the deposition environment, and utilises shotgun metagenomics to characterise the DNA found on ancient shipwreck sites.

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      image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/