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In mining communities, women in particular often bear the negative consequences associated with mismanagement of extractive industries. Women need to be part of the processes and strategies aimed at transforming the negative aspects of the extractive industries into visible social and economic benefits in affected communities. With the permission of senior management of the Ok Tedi mining company, a World Bank consultant was included in the final 5-week long mine life extension (MLE) negotiations as an observer. The purpose was to observe women's roles in the negotiations and, through interviews with the participants, document the women negotiators' aspirations and expectations from the process. The ultimate goal is to provide a forward-looking assessment of the outcomes and draw lessons for analysis and program design not only in the Community Mine Continuation Agreement (CMCA) regions but elsewhere in Papua New Guinea (PNG) resource areas. This report documents the unique and pioneering experience in PNG of women and their roles in negotiating mining operations' benefit streams for local communities. The lessons it draws for development policy-making, planning, and program implementations are relevant both for PNG and for other countries in their attempts to make policy decisions about translating mineral wealth into inclusive and sustainable development for local communities.

Malawi sits amid a vibrant Travel and Tourism (T&T) region that is growing rapidly and increasing its world market share. Proximate to countries with thriving T&T sectors, Malawi has a relatively underdeveloped diversity of natural, cultural, and man-made attractions. It is challenged to embrace effective policies that will enable public and private sector alignment to achieve a viable niche as an economically productive, multi experience destination in its own right. It is important to view tourism as a national priority across sectors and ministries in Malawi. Thus, there is the need to better understand the economic potential of Malawi's T&T sector and recommend strategies to promote a level of competitiveness that leads to further economic growth, employment generation, and poverty reduction. The goal is to identify the economic potential of T&T in Malawi. The objective of T&T in Malawi is to delivering economic growth and diversification is to analyze the value of T&T in Malawi.

The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden contain some of the world's most important coastal and marine environments and resources. In view of their environmental uniqueness, the threats they are facing, and the need for actions, the preparation of the Strategic Action Programme (SAP) for the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden was initiated in October 1995. THE SAP process, coordinated by the Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA), has been undertaken with support from the countries of the region, the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), selected international development institutions, and donor organizations. The SAP supports and facilitates the primary goal of PERSGA, which is the conservation of the environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. The goals of the SAP are to develop a regional framework for protecting the environment and the sustainable development of coastal and marine resources. The Program outlined in the SAP focuses on both preventive and curative measures required to maintain the rich and diverse coastal and marine resources of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. The SAP is a significant process for reaching agreement concerning environmental trends, threats, and priorities at a regional level. It is also a product in the form of an Action Programme which provides a framework for continued cooperation in reaching short-, medium-, and long-term goals through a series of complementary actions at all levels.

While tourism is one of the most important economic activities in the Caribbean, its reliance is based uniquely on the natural environment, indicating the resource base upon which all of this economic activity is based, is however fragile. Thus, sustainable tourism, and its economic benefits require ensuring that the environmental resources the sector relies on, are managed responsibly by the countries of the Caribbean, the tourism/travel industry, and the visitors themselves. The study examines the links between tourism, and environment, pointing at the magnitude of environmental threats, and the role of information, at creating strong incentives, addressing environmental problems certification schemes, to allow credible advertisement of its environmental quality. Capturing tourism economic "rents" - defined as an excess return to an asset - is viewed as a policy question for governments, on how to use these rents effectively. Mechanisms to capture rents include charging user fees when accessing a particular environmental resource, however, when environmental resources are public goods, user fees do not provide a practical means of capturing generated rents, thus more general taxation schemes are required. Based on this analysis, recommendations include the establishment of corporate income taxes, and moderate tariff rates for tourism inputs, establishing taxation, to be partly, and explicitly identified for environmental, and/or resource user fees.

This paper presents a study of willingness-to-pay of the Armenian Diaspora in the United States to protect Armenia's Lake Sevan, a unique and precious symbol of the Armenian cultural heritage. Dichotomous choice contingent valuation questions were asked by mail surveys to elicit respondents' willingness to pay for the protection of Lake Sevan. The results show that on average, each household of the Armenian Diaspora in the United States would be willing to provide a one-time donation of approximately US$80 to prevent a further degradation of Lake Sevan, and approximately US$280 to restore the quality of the lake by increasing its water level by 3 meters.

Precise knowledge about the extent of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; c. 26.5-19 cal. ka BP) is important in order to 1) improve paleo-ice sheet reconstructions, 2) provide a robust empirical framework for calibrating paleo-ice sheet models, and 3) locate potential shelf refugia for Antarctic benthos during the last glacial period. However, reliable reconstructions are still lacking for many WAIS sectors, particularly for key areas on the outer continental shelf, where the LGM-ice sheet is assumed to have terminated. In many areas of the outer continental shelf around Antarctica, direct geological data for the presence or absence of grounded ice during the LGM is lacking because of post-LGM iceberg scouring. This also applies to most of the outer continental shelf in the Amundsen Sea. Here we present detailed marine geophysical and new geological data documenting a sequence of glaciomarine sediments up to ~12 m thick within the deep outer portion of Abbot Trough, a palaeo-ice stream trough on the outer shelf of the Amundsen Sea Embayment. The upper 2-3 meters of this sediment drape contain calcareous foraminifera of Holocene and (pre-)LGM age and, in combination with palaeomagnetic age constraints, indicate that continuous glaciomarine deposition persisted here since well before the LGM, possibly even since the last interglacial period. Our data therefore indicate that the LGM grounding line, whose exact location was previously uncertain, did not reach the shelf edge everywhere in the Amundsen Sea. The LGM grounding line position coincides with the crest of a distinct grounding-zone wedge ~100 km inland from the continental shelf edge. Thus, an area of >6000 km² remained free of grounded ice through the last glacial cycle, requiring the LGM grounding line position to be re-located in this sector, and suggesting a new site at which Antarctic shelf benthos may have survived the last glacial period.

How can we help poor people to earn more from their knowledge rather than from their sweat and muscle? This paper draws lessons from projects intended to promote and protect the innovation, knowledge, and creative skills of poor people in poor countries, particularly to improve the earnings of poor people from such knowledge and skills. The international community has paid considerable attention to problems associated with intellectual property that poor countries buy-such as the increased cost of pharmaceuticals brought on by the WTO's agreement on the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS). This paper is about the other half of the development-intellectual property link. It is about the knowledge poor people own, create, and sell rather than about what they buy. The paper calls attention to a broad range of poor people's knowledge that has commercial potential. It highlights the incentives for and concerns of poor people-which may be different from those of corporate research, northern nongovernmental organizations, or even entertainment stars from developing countries who already enjoy an international audience. The studies find that increased earnings is sometimes a matter of poor people acquiring commercial skills. Legal reform, though often necessary, is frequently not sufficient. Moreover, the paper concludes that the need for novel legal approaches to protect traditional knowledge has been overemphasized. Standard instruments such as patents and copyrights are often effective. Rather than legal innovation, there is a need for economic and political empowerment of poor people so that they have the skills to use such instruments and the influence to insist that institutional structures respond to their interests. Finally, the paper concludes that there is minimal conflict between culture and commerce. There are many income-earning expressions of culture, and it is incorrect to presume that expressions of culture must always be income-using.

Protection of sound management of coastal and marine areas is acknowledged as important mechanisms for alleviating poverty in the developing tropics. Tanzania has had considerable practical experience with a diversity of models that rely on private sector partnerships, community co-management regimes, and government-led initiatives for marine protection. This report outlines a vision of what a protected area system could look like in 50 years. It draws on state-of-the-art ecosystems, socioeconomic, financial, and institutional background studies, to paint a picture that emphasizes community-based adaptive co-management, within a flexible system of eight protected area networks, on of which is the Exclusive Economic Zone.

Many cities across Europe and Central Asia are experiencing the impacts of climate change, but most have not integrated climate adaptation into their agendas. This paper examines the threats faced and measures that can be taken by cities in the region to protect buildings, heritage sites, municipal functions, and vulnerable urban populations. In general, local governments must be proactive in ensuring that existing buildings are climate ready, paying particular attention to emerging technologies for retrofitting the prefabricated, panel style buildings that dominate the landscape while assessing the viability of homes situated in flood plains, coastal areas, and steep slopes. They also must ensure that new developments and buildings are designed in ways that account for climatic fluctuations. Although the resilience of all populations needs to be considered, historical patterns of discrimination require that special provisions are made for the poor and for ethnic minorities such as the Roma because these groups will be most at risk, but are least likely to have access to adequate resources. Urban climate adaptation requires national-level support and local commitment. However, centralized planning and expert-led decision-making under the former regimes may affect the ability of cities to pursue programmatic approaches to adaptation. Therefore, while national governments need to make adaptation a policy priority and ensure that municipalities have adequate resources, local government agencies and departments must be transparent in their actions and introduce participatory and community-based measures that demonstrate respect for diverse stakeholders and perspectives.

Regional trade in Africa can play a vital role in diversifying economies and reducing dependence on the export of a few mineral products, in delivering food and energy security, in generating jobs for the increasing numbers of young people, and in alleviating poverty and promoting a shared prosperity. Women play a key role in trade in Africa and will be essential to Africa's success in exploiting its trade potential. In many countries in Africa, the majority of small farmers are women, and they produce crops such as maize, cassava, cotton, and rice that have enormous potential for increased trade between African countries and with the global market. Women are also involved in providing services across borders, such as education, health, and professional services, including accountancy and legal services. Hundreds of thousands of women cross borders in Africa every day to deliver goods from areas where they are relatively cheap to areas in which they are in shorter supply. Yet, policy makers typically overlook women's contribution to trade and the challenges they face. This volume brings together a series of chapters that look at the ways that women participate in trade in Africa, the constraints they face, and the impact of those constraints. It seeks to extend the rather small amount of analytical work that has been devoted to this issue and to encourage researchers, especially in Africa, to look more carefully at the specific challenges women face. The chapters look at the conditions and challenges faced by three broad groups: informal cross border traders; women who participate in the production of traded goods and services, ranging from rural farmers of cotton to professional activities such as legal and accountancy services; and women entrepreneurs with dominant ownership of exporting companies. The book highlights the importance of identifying and removing the conditions that prevent women from exploiting the full potential of trading activities. This report is organized as follows: chapter one gives introduction; chapter two presents barriers, risks, and productive potential for small-scale traders in the Great lakes region; chapter three focuses on unshackling women traders: cross-border trade of Eru from Cameroon to Nigeria; chapter four focuses on women cross-border traders, challenges, and behavior change communications; chapter five gives the gender dimension of Uganda's cotton sector; chapter six focuses on services trade and gender; chapter seven focuses on gender in the tourism industry: the case of Kenya; chapter eight presents shape up and ship out?: gender constraints to growth and exporting in South Africa; and chapter nine presents trade and gender in Tanzania: what matters-participation or outcomes?.